A combination of the two that is the eagle carrying a thunderbolt was often seen on Roman coins. At the domestic level, the value of animals was governed by a utility as food or as beasts of burden. They were used in the form of oxen to pull plows and carts. He is Venus husband and often carries a hammer. . Ares, too, was handsome but prone to bloodlust in war, and war, unfortunately, accompanies humans. User Experience Workshop. A Greek 5th-century red-figure hydria found in a cemetery of ancient Ainos (modern Enez, Turkey) depicts what is obviously a cultic scene, probably relative to the funerary rites performed for the burial of the deceased. The sacred animals to him were the bear, wolf and woodpecker. The other two being his wife Juno and goddess Minerva. My name is Marta, I am a travel-loving mama born and bred in that messy, wonderful, infuriating, awe-inspiring unbelievably beautiful city that is Rome. Fun fact! In fact, the ancient Romans used different animals for different purposes. Roman farmers sacrificed one pig, one goat and one bull to Mars. Ancient Sea God, protects seafarers, can raise storms & cause shipwrecks Aesculapius. Shamans of nearly every culture have revered the wolf for its swiftness, instinctual abilities and wild freedom. Often represented with running horses, representing the power of the sea, he was also the Gods of horses. Juno had a special connection with Roman women, who would ask for her protection at times such as marriage and birth, which the goddess overlooked. Big, strong, temperamental creatures that have had loomed large in man's past. Jupiter is considered the all-time most powerful ancient Roman God. The worship of Janus traditionally dated back to Romulus and a period even before the actual founding of the city of Rome. It is believed that the earliest traditional feasts of Rome, famously known as the Lupercalia, feasts in honor of the God Pan, who himself was half man and half goat. Top 10 Ancient Roman Gods - Ancient History Lists The Gallic and Germanic cavalry (auxilia) of the Roman Imperial army regularly set up altars to the "Mothers of the Field" (Campestres, from campus, "field," with the title Matres or Matronae). Janus | Myth, Meaning, & Facts | Britannica She was highly revered, and worshiped along with Jupiter and Juno as one of the Capitoline Triad. Apollo was the Roman god of the Sun and agriculture. Other symbols representing Hades are mostly his sacred animals and plants. They are symbolic of power and courage and are believed to ward off evil and bring about good luck. Aztec Numbers Guide What Numbers Did the Aztecs Use? The dog is a handsome animal, accompanying humans, which can turn into a vicious beast of carnage, and so it is associated with Ares. A lectisternium is a banquet for the gods, at which they appear as images seated on couches, as if present and participating. Bull jumping, bull baiting, bull fights and running of the bulls are events where they were, and in some cases still are, featured. Ceres is one of the 20 most important Roman gods and goddesses. Sacred Animals in Ancient Roman Mythology by Mary Van Dyke - Prezi 2023 Symbols and Meanings - Your Ultimate Guide for Symbolism, Greek God Hephaestus Symbols, Sacred Animals And Plants The God of Fire, Blacksmiths And The Forge, Greek Goddess Hera Symbols, Sacred Animals And Plants The Goddess of Marriage, Women, Family And Childbirth, Greek Goddess Demeter Symbols, Sacred Animals And Plants The Goddess Of Harvest, Fertility And Agriculture, Hermes Symbols, Sacred Animals And Plants, The Trickster God In Greek Mythology, Poseidon Symbols, Sacred Animals And Plants The God of Oceans and Earthquakes In Greek Mythology, Artemis Symbols, Sacred Animals And Plants The Goddess of Wilderness In Greek Mythology, Athena Symbols, Sacred Animals And Plants The Goddess of Wisdom And War In Greek Mythology, Greek God Zeus Symbols, Sacred Animals And Plants, Greek Goddess Hestia Symbols, Sacred Animals And Plants, The Full List, Hummingbird Symbolism, Spiritual Meaning And Spirit Animal Explained, Ask and Embla The First Humans in Norse Mythology. [12] Groupings of twelve [ edit] Lectisternium of 217 BC [ edit] You might be surprised to learn that dogs also had a special place in this country. Who were the 12 Roman Gods and Goddesses? Her symbols include cornucopia, also known as the horn of plenty, sheaves of grain, bread, wheat and torches. Ovid, in Fasti, tells of Mars's attempt to seduce Minerva. Protector of all arts and especially of metallic work, he was a positive God of workmanship and business. And it was supposedly built from the fines Roman women paid for sexual misconducts. With this said, Romans were remarkably open to worshipping multiple gods. Lares and Penates were deities protecting the house and hte househols, the lares specificaly protectors of the house as a place and the penates protector of the livelyhood of the family members. 12-19 April Cerialia festival and games to Ceres with chariot racing on the last day. God of fire, metalworking, and crafts. Animal cults are classified into two categories, namely its internal meaning, or outwards appearance. Greek God Symbols, Sacred Animals and PlantsWatch this video on YouTube, Carrying on with our series on the symbols of gods in Greek mythology, we will be discussing Hephaestus, the blacksmith of gods, who also happens to be the god of blacksmiths. Apollo is the Roman and the Greek god of the Sun. This page was last modified on 2 October 2013, at 15:59. Mitra was often worshipped in underground temples (mitrea) some of which we can still access. Roman god lists [ edit] Triads [ edit] Archaic Triad: Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus. The name is derived from the Latin cupido, "desire". Demeter being the Greek goddess of agriculture and fertility, most of her symbols are related to harvest and abundance. The following groups, however, are numberless collectives. Many Roman Gods entered the Rome Pantheon from Greek religion and mythology. Gods were called Pater ("Father") to signify their preeminence and paternal care, and the filial respect owed to them. The goddess Juno is depicted in many forms but Junos most popular form is wearing a warlike attire with a goatskin coat. The di indigetes were thought by Georg Wissowa to be Rome's indigenous deities, in contrast to the di novensides or novensiles, "newcomer gods". POSEIDON - Greek God of the Sea & Earthquakes (Roman Neptune) The 12 major Romans gods were called the Dii Consentes and their statues stood in the Roman Forum. When Heracles returned with the cattle of Geryon, Cacus stole some of the animals and hid them in his cave. Hephaestus Sacred Animal Donkey, guard dog, crane Hephaestus was the god of craftsmanship and fire, and the donkey, the guard dog, and the crane were all considered his sacred animals. Today, as we continue our article series on Greek gods and their symbols, one of those trickster gods is our guest on Symbols and Meanings, Hermes, the messenger of gods in Greek mythology. After his death and deification, the title was awarded to each of his successors. Diana is the main Roman Goddess of the lunar light. This ancient deity has a unique symbolic meaning in ancient Rome: legend tells us that Romulus was raised into the sky as Quirinus. He is also known as the herald of gods and the personal messenger of his father, Zeus. ARES : Summary of the Olympian God The symbol of the Wolf and the suckling babies is considered of great significance for ancient Roman society. She was Cupid's mother and Vulcan's wife. Essential guide to the main Roman Gods: their names, symbols and festivities. Royal scepters and cornucopia are his main symbols. An 18th-century French history based on classical sources records that Roman priests kept a flock of sacred chickens, which supposedly reflected the will of the gods by feeding on the grain. Here is everything you should know about the Greek goddess of women, her family, symbols, sacred animals, and plants. She is rarely shown in her human form and is depicted as fire. Hestia is the Greek goddess who is equivalent to Vesta. Also known as Hephaistos, Hephaestus is the god of forges, volcanoes, fire, blacksmiths, carpenters, stone masonry, metalworking, metallurgy and sculptors in the Greek pantheon. The ancient Rome society was a pastoral society and Rome Animals were of immense utility. Gods like Jupiter, Apollo, and Janus hold their place even as new gods cycle in and out of fashion. Let us get right into it. Everything in the Roman world was divinely touched, and any new discovery would carry with it a touch of divinity. In an article published by Kenyon.edu, the educational institution published a response to scholar Rodney Taylors paper on the relation of animals to humans in a conceptualized manner in the ethico-political and socio-political spheres. The son of Venus. Dogs, mans best friend, is also worshiped during the Kukur Tihar festival in few parts of Nepal. There are several different animals that are associated with Athena in classical literature and mythology. Who is Hephaestus in Greek Mythology? A goddess known as Stata Mater was a compital deity credited with preventing fires in the city.[7]. 10 Worshipped Animals from around the World | Speaking Tree Top 10 Ancient Roman Gods! - Best Toppers Mars also symbolically represented military power as a way to secure peace. The son of Zeus and Hera, Ares was the Greek god of war and courage in Greek mythology. Also recognized as "Jove", Jupiter is well known for bagging his weapon, a thunderbolt, which accompanies a sacred animal, an eagle. Son of Chronos and Rea, he wasnt often represented in ancient times and we have few descriptions of him, despite numerous mentions by several poets and dominant role in what the tomans images to be the underworld. The Limits of Donations in the Roman Religious Sphere, Marta Garcia Morcillo 11. Hares, doves, turtle-doves, geese, sparrows, swallows, fish, shellfish and swines were Aphrodites sacred animals while roses, myrtles, anemones, apple trees, lettuces and pomegranates were her sacred plants. Birds were classified into classes, such as birds which flew in groups, and those which flew alone, those making nasty sounds were considered an omen. Helmets, swords, shields, spears, chariots, flaming torches, vultures, dogs and boars were his symbols. Sacred Gifts, Profane Uses? The Hindu mythology even has a deity called Ganesha- the Elephant God. 2. Venus was the goddess of love, beauty. He was also the father of the twins Romulus and Remus. The month of March and the planet Mars are named after him. The epithet Bonus, "the Good," is used in Imperial ideology with abstract deities such as Bona Fortuna ("Good Fortune"), Bona Mens ("Good Thinking" or "Sound Mind"), and Bona Spes ("Valid Hope," perhaps to be translated as "Optimism"). Augusta, the feminine form, is an honorific and title associated with the development and dissemination of Imperial cult as applied to Roman Empresses, whether living, deceased or deified as divae. His sacred animals include the donkey . Juno overlooks over weather events, especially the lunar phases. Zeus is the god of the sky, lightning/thunder, weather, fate and kings in Greek mythology. There is a sense that while Rome is a cosmopolitan city that is more than open to outside influence, nothing will ever be quite so grand as the myths on which the city was initially founded. Who is Hestia in Greek Mythology? The indigitamenta are deities known only or primarily as a name; they may be minor entities, or epithets of major gods. One of the most significant and popular deities in ancient Greece, Poseidon is the god of the seas, storms, flood, earthquakes, droughts and horses in Greek mythology. The Roman God Vulcan then cracked open Jupiters head to relieve him of the pain. This earned her the name Juno Lucina because her domain overlapped with the Roman goddess Juno. When it comes to Greek Gods and dogs as sacred animals, Greek mythology reveres in a three-headed dog, named Hydra. He was accounted as the god of the sky, king of the gods in Ancient Roman mythology. Jupiter (Iuppiter in Latin) was the God above all other Gods in Rome. In ancient times, before Rome became a military power, Mars was an agricultural God, overlooking the arrival of spring and the victory of life forces over the dire winter. Neptune was also the ancient Roman patron god of horses and horse racing. In Hinduism alone deities like Lord Shiva whose steed was a bull called Nandi, cows are honored in sacricity by having statutes erected in their reverence. Here, the Romans worshipped him under the name Iuppiter Optimus Maximus as part of the so-called Capitoline Triad. Serpent deities have an important place in Indian culture. Cuckoo birds, peacocks (her mount was a chariot drawn by peacocks), cows and lions were sacred to Hera. Helmets/helms are the main Ares symbol while the other symbols of Ares include spears, shields, chariots, boars, dogs and vultures. Salus is identified with the Greek Hygieia. Norse God. Sacred bull - Wikipedia Diana is the Roman goddess of wild animals and the hunt. Throughout the Empire, the deities of peoples in the provinces were given new theological interpretations in light of functions or attributes they shared with Roman deities. Mercury is the Roman deity overlooking trade and commerce. He was the king of gods and the chief deity of the ancient Roman Empire before Christianity became dominant. Roman Gods | Roman Religion at UNRV Hephaestuss symbols were hammers, anvils, tongs and quail birds. He is also known as the King of the Gods since he is the main Continue reading the article, Despite not being a flashy character or having amazing war stories or mythical tales of love under her belt, Hestia was one of the most significant gods in Greek mythology. An Olive Tree by Eberhard Grossgasteiger. She is the daughter of Zeus and the Titaness Dione according to Illiad although in Theogony, it is suggested that she was born from the union of Uranuss severed genitals and sea foam. Anubis remained an important god through both the Greek and later the Roman rule of Egypt. [8] See also Magna Mater (Great Mother) following. Athena was a very important figure who took part in many important Greek myths. Apollo is the Roman Sun God, worshipped as Febo, son of Jupiter and Lato. Here you'll find all collections you've created before. Fire: Color - Red. From the beginning Roman religion was polytheistic. The mythology of Rome is somewhat more cosmopolitan than most might think, with influences gained from all across the Roman Empire. Even in invocations, which generally required precise naming, the Romans sometimes spoke of gods as groups or collectives rather than naming them as individuals. 2) Jupiter- The Roman god of the sky Jupiter, also known as Jove is the Roman deity of the sky. Horses were used for transport and for military purposes. ", Invictus ("Unconquered, Invincible") was in use as a divine epithet by the early 3rd century BC. Minerva is the powerful Roman goddess of knowledge. The Roman personification of silence, and its goddess. Roman Gods and Goddesses List 170 Legendary Roman Gods - Adducation Popular especially with soldiers, Mitra was a God associated with the sun, agriculture and rebirth. In mythology, she and four of her siblings were eaten by her father, Saturn. The oldest continuously run business in the world is a hot spring hotel in Japan thats been in operation since 705 A.D. The main Poseidon symbol is his trident, his iconic weapon. In the Imperial period, it expressed the invincibility of deities embraced officially, such as Jupiter, Mars, Hercules, and Sol. The ancient Roman animals played a very crucial and salient role in the Roman society. Vesta is commonly associated with the donkey and fire. The holm oak, also known as the holy oak and the evergreen oak, and the olive trees are known as Zeus' sacred plants. In this way, Juno gave birth to Mars. Jupiter, the king of the Roman Gods - A marble statue made around 150 AD, displayed in the Louvre Museum. Ceres was the goddess of grain. Remains of the temple of Isis in Rome are still visible in the city (via Labicana) in and we have at least one large statue of Isis dating from Roman times, which you can see in Piazza San Marco (Piazza Venezia). (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); Greek God Symbols, Sacred Animals and Plants, Being the worlds smallest bird measuring only a few inches, , The labrys, or double-headed axe, is one of the earliest , The universe of culture has endless spaces with the most , Not many civilizations were as mathematically advanced as the Aztec , Angel numbers are a sequence of repeating digits, and they , The Mormon religion was founded in 1830 by Joseph Smith, , The Crucifixion of Jesus Christ and the redemptive effects of , Carrying on our series on religious symbols, we will be . Goddesses & Gods | Sacred Wicca They performed a wide measure of functions and were of immense utility to the Romans. After Continue reading the article, Carrying on with our articles series on Greek god symbols, we will be discussing the Greek goddess of wilderness Artemis, her symbols, sacred animals and plants in todays post. Bonus Eventus, "Good Outcome", was one of Varro's twelve agricultural deities, and later represented success in general. In one, Hera bore him, without Zeus, at the touch of a magic herb given her by Flora. In some case, they maintained their original characteristics, while in others, they mixed their Greek traits with those of ancient Italic deities. Gods and goddesses of the Greek and Roman pantheon [2], From the middle Imperial period, the title Caelestis, "Heavenly" or "Celestial" is attached to several goddesses embodying aspects of a single, supreme Heavenly Goddess. 03 He has a three-headed guard dog named Cerberus. The reverence of worshipping sacred animals, can be tied back to a relation with a certain deity. In describing the lectisternium of the Twelve Great gods in 217 BC, the Augustan historian Livy places the deities in gender-balanced pairs:[13], Divine male-female complements such as these, as well as the anthropomorphic influence of Greek mythology, contributed to a tendency in Latin literature to represent the gods as "married" couples or (as in the case of Venus and Mars) lovers. Additionally, he is the Roman god who leads the deceased souls of humans to the afterlife. Bird - Parrot The Roman deities most widely known today are those the Romans identified with Greek counterparts (see interpretatio graeca), integrating Greek myths, iconography, and sometimes religious practices into Roman culture, including Latin literature, Roman art, and religious life as it was experienced throughout the Empire. Sacred flocks and herds? It was he and Roman goddess Minerva who invented the chariot. Greek God Symbols, Sacred Animals And Plants: The Full List The canine, being a symbol of both alertness and vigilance, also represents the three levels of physical sound. Roman Religion - World History Encyclopedia Hera, the wife of Zeus, is the other half of the archetypal divine couple in the Greek mythology. Most of the 12 major Roman gods identified with their Greek counterparts, they had many similarities and were drawn from Greek iconography, myths and religious practices. Let's take a look at the list of the top 10 Roman gods to find out a little more about them: Contents show . Also known as the queen of the gods, Hera was the goddess of marriage, family, women, childbirth, and sky in Greek mythology. Her sacred plant is the olive tree. Brides offered her gifts before marriage. These Greek similarities then found their way into the Roman culture and hence many Greek and Roman gods have a lot in common. It includes the 12 Greek Olympian Gods and Goddesses and other deities significant in Roman Religion. The goddess of the Earth, nature, mountains, and wild animals Diana The Goddess of Hunting Faunus The god of the forest, fields, and plains Fauna Goddess of Animals Flora Goddess of Flowers and Spring Fortuna Fortuna was the Goddess of Fortune Janus the God of Doors and beginnings and endings Juno The Goddess of Marriage Jupiter (Jove) He is one of the six children of Kronos and Rhea along with Hera, Demeter, Hestia, Poseidon and Hades. Befitting to the goddess of wisdom, owls, the birds closely associated with wisdom, are the sacred animals of Athena. One of his oracles was the Oracle of Delphi, the most famous oracle of all times. Virgil tells us that Aeneas, escaping Troy, brought his lares and penates to Italy to give them a new home and preserve and protect his family. Hecate The Greek Goddess. Subsequently out emerged Minerva, a full-size adult clad in armour. Bulls and eagles were the sacred animals of Zeus while his sacred plants were oak and olive trees. Serpent - Apophis Eternal enemy to the sun god Ra, Apophis was a dangerous, giant serpent which embodied the powers of dissolution, darkness, and non-being. While some of its gods and goddesses almost certainly date back to its earliest days, others were imported either whole cloth or were mixed together with other Roman gods to create a sense that Romes gods were the gods of the world. Who were the major Roman gods and goddesses? - Sky HISTORY TV channel A mushroom is highlighted as a special ingredient to be added along with other plants to the mixing of a pithos of wine. Their virility kept up herds, generating wealth . Juno and Jovis were a celestial couple and the solidity of their relationship is considered essential for the balancing of world forces and therefore prosperity. Hermes is the son of Zeus and Maia the Plead and the god of speed, messengers, trade, athletics, herds, shepherds, boundaries, roads, travellers and thieves in Greek mythology. Aress sacred animals were dogs and serpents while there is no clear information as to what was considered his sacred plant. In Hindu culture, Lord Dattatreya is depicted with four dogs, and these dogs represent the four Vedas (Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda) and Mother Earth. Mars the Roman God of War | Mythology & Facts - Study.com A fragment from Ennius, within whose lifetime the lectisternium occurred, lists the same twelve deities by name, though in a different order from that of Livy: Juno, Vesta, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venus, Mars, Mercurius, Jove, Neptunus, Vulcanus, Apollo.[15]. There is a temple in The Valley of Nepal, in the Kathmandu region, called the Swayambhunath temple. Roman Gods and Goddesses. These religious feasts were held in the month of February and involved boys running out of the cave on Palatine Hill, thrashing leather hides over those who might be near them. The Symbols of Roman History - Walks Inside Rome She is the wife of the Roman god Jupiter and the mother of Vulcan, Mars, Juventas and Bellona. Roman Gods: names and symbols of the most important ancient Roman Gods Neptune was the Roman god of the sea, similar to the Greek god Poseidon. I hope you enjoyed this overview of the most important Roman gods and Goddesses and their symbols. The criminal offender was mauled to death by wild and ferocious animals particularly the lion. Symbols of Juno were the cown and the peacock. The two Greek mythological creatures called Silenus and Satyr both had a goat-like shape. Neptune is the deity of freshwater and the sea. In origin, he is the male equivalent to Diana and used to be associated with the sun and in particular with the dusk and dawn, metaphorically the beginning and the end. The ceremony of the sacrifice reflects the Roman social order. The sacred ibis was worshipped from Predynastic times (c. 5300-3000 BC) by the ancient Egyptians. The goddess is credited for the discovery of ploughing, sowing and nurturing of seeds and the spelt wheat. Juno has a complex history and she held many epithets, each for a different aspect of human life. Cattle are prominent in some religions and mythologies.As such, numerous peoples throughout the world have at one point in time honored bulls as sacred. In another, he was the father of Romulus and Remus by Rhea Silvia, a Vestal Virgin. Like his counterpart Zeus in Greek mythology, he possesses the power of lightning and thunder. Sacred Animals in Ancient Egypt - Egypt Magic Tours Mars (mythology) - Sacred Animals - LiquiSearch Gods and goddesses were more mutable in their exact roles than humans, but the adaptability of the gods allowed them to continue to be worshipped. A fantastic statue in Rome representing this myth is the famous taking of Proserpina by Gian Lorenzo Bernini in the Borghese Gallery. This is one of the most famous sculptures in Rome and it is now kept in the Borghese Gallery. The first temple built in her name was the Venus Obsequens. The animals must be one of two colors, black or white. Ravens, wolves, dolphins and swans were known as his sacred animals while larkspurs, cypress trees and laurels were Apollos sacred plants. Roman couples often had themselves painted as the passionate divine couple Mars and Venus. Neptune is the best and the greatest god of all time, He is the Roman god of water and sea and they are very similar to the Greek God Poseidon. The first animals in ancient Roman history and legend are the wolf and sheep. Juno is the Roman goddess of fertility and the patron goddess of ancient Rome. Gorgoneions, amulets with Medusa heads on them, and aegis, the magical item only carried by Zeus and Athena, which is suggested to be either a piece of clothing made of animal skin or a shield, are the two main symbols of Athena. The Implications of Animal Sacrifice at Rural and Suburban Romano-Celtic Shrines, Tony King 10. Ancient Rome Animals - Ancient-Rome.info - History of ancient roman Venus is a goddess with paramount importance in roman mythology and specifically for the roman empire. They would honor the greater pantheon with feasts and celebrations, but they were every bit as observant when it came to honoring the gods of their households, their businesses, and their neighborhoods. The ancient Rome animals were used to work on the pastures, for animal sacrifices, fortune telling, in marriage ceremonies, in public feasts, as part of the capital punishment, kept as pets, etc. Augustus, "the elevated or august one" (masculine form) is an honorific and title awarded to Octavian in recognition of his unique status, the extraordinary range of his powers, and the apparent divine approval of his principate. Her name Hestia actually is literally the Greek word for fireplace. Mercury was the god of many things including trade, finance, communication, travellers, trickery, and luck. A classics graduate and professional travel blogger, on this site I share my insider tips to help you plan your dream trip to Rome, Italy. Animals sacred to Apollo included wolves, dolphins, roe deer, swans, cicadas (symbolizing music and song), hawks, ravens, crows, snakes (referencing Apollo's function as the god of prophecy), mice and griffins, mythical eagle-lion hybrids of Eastern origin. . He is famous for his three pronged Trident, and was said to have caused a massive flood in one Roman myth. [4], Grammatically, the form Caelestis can also be a masculine word, but the equivalent function for a male deity is usually expressed through syncretization with Caelus, as in Caelus Aeternus Iuppiter, "Jupiter the Eternal Sky. In Greek and Roman mythology, he was represented as a muscular man married to his wife Juno. There are several Roman myths about Mars. The Mercies of the Sacred Heart: Sermons for First Fridays - Part 1 The earliest gods and goddesses are more spirits than anything else, rulers of small domains and households. Other Zeus symbols include royal scepters and thrones, befitting to the god of Kings, bulls, eagles, oak and olive trees. 04 The Underworld has three realms. Dogs were kept as pets, as guards, and even as hunting companions. Some archaic deities have Italic or Etruscan counterparts, as identified both by ancient sources and by modern scholars. Unlike the god of war Mars, she is solely the goddess of defensive war. Project dedicated to support and help to improve Veterinary Medicine. His symbols were the eagle and lighting. His descendants settled in Latium and count Rhea Silvia, mother of Romulus. Wild celeries and pine trees were the sacred plants of Poseidon. Here is everything you should know about Poseidons symbols, sacred plants and animals, his family tree and myths involving him.